Non-Participation in Physical Education: A Study in Girls’ Secondary School

Write a 2,500 word topic outline and literature review on a subject of your choice which will form the basis of your third-year dissertation.

Non-Participation in Physical Education: A Study in Girls’ Secondary School

Topic Outline
The current study is going to examine non-participation in physical education, particularly among female students in secondary schools based on the report by Papla, Wojdała, Rasek, Królikowska, Starzak, and Górna-Łukasik (2019) that female participation in physical education is currently declining in the UK. Additionally, I will explore possible causes of the declining participation and how the issue can be addressed.

Introduction
Physical education is essential for individual health (Carson, Lee, Hewitt, Jennings, Hunter, Kuzik, Stearns, Unrau, Poitras, Gray and Adamo, 2017), it facilitates individual development (Forthofer, Dowda, O’Neill, Addy, McDonald, Reid and Pate, 2017), and people’s beliefs and attitudes towards physical activities (Hamido, Gu, And Itoh 2019). Keeping active reduces the risks related to coronary heart disease, proper joint mobility, psychosocial health, and functional ability among other benefits (Bartholomew, Errisuriz, and Jowers, 2019). Additionally, physical education facilitates the development of knowledge and skills that are necessary for maintaining an active and healthy lifestyle (Macniven, Hearn, Grunseit, Richards, Nutbeam, and Bauman, 2017). Besides, physical education helps students to develop their psychomotor abilities through the exploration of play and movement among the students (Bhargava, 2017). However, for females to participate in physical education and compete with their male counterparts, there should be a favourable environment, they should be motivated, provided with essential facilities, and free from society stereotypes, attitudes and beliefs that physical education is mainly for males among other factors.

Lack of Motivation
Lack of motivation is one of the widely researched causes of low participation in physical education among secondary school girls. Munk and Agergaard (2018) in their study on teachers’ roles in creating a favourable environment within which secondary girls can engage in physical education noted that lack of motivation, especially from female teachers, creates a situation where the majority of the girls view physical education as non-essential. In a similar study, Bechter, Dimmock, Howard, Whipp, and Jackson (2018) attributed low participation in physical education among females due to lack of motivation from the school. Underlining that most schools, especially mixed-gender schools only emphasise male students’ participation hence facilities used for purposes of physical education are not gender-neutral, as they do not accommodate the needs of the girls. Concurrently, Aelterman, Vansteenkiste, Soenens, and Haerens (2016) warned that such a situation creates an environment where a significant number of girls lack the motivation for participation in physical education. Munk and Agergaard (2018) agreed to Bechter et al. (2018) concluding that teachers, particularly physical education teachers should work towards providing facilities that accommodate the needs and wants of female students in physical education.
Stereotyping of Physical Education as Being Gendered
The perception of physical education as a male-related subject has also been cited as a major cause of non-participation in the subject among female learners. Aelterman et al. (2016) assert that secondary school girls hold negative beliefs and attitudes towards physical education thereby making them discouraged in it. According to Aelterman et al. (2016), one of the notable reasons promoting non-participation in physical education is the fact that girls are socialised into the belief that the activities, defined within physical education are the domains of the male gender. Aelterman et al. (2016) further noted that some societies have created a perception that physical education is a male-dominated field. In this regard, females tend to be discouraged from engaging in physical education, which is an aspect that turns out to be a habit that is manifested among girls in secondary. In a similar study on the impact of stereotypes on female student engagement in physical education, Gråstén and Watt (2017) established that the expectation in some communities that only the males should engage in physical education results in the development of the perception that such education program is a field that should be dominated by the males.
Further study by Frömel, Svozil, Chmelík, Jakubec, and Groffik (2016) on this topic showed that cultural beliefs and expectations are primary factors that define the level of participation of female students in physical education. Precisely, Frömel et al. (2016) noted that in most secondary schools, girls believe that they should only engage in activities that relate to their roles in society. In that case, most girls shy away from participating in the given activities citing that such activities reflect more on the roles of boys as defined in the cultural norms and values. Concurrently, Gråstén and Watt (2017) maintained that some societies have continued discouraging girl participation in physical education by defining the implications associated with engaging in the activities. Kääpä, Palomäki, Vähä-Ypyä, Vasankari, and Hirvensalo (2019) held similar views arguing that female students who engage in various activities defined in physical education are regarded as a form of an outcast considering the nature of stereotypes developed about physical education in some societies. As a result, the majority of female students tend to focus more on the perceptions developed in society thereby ignoring major benefits associated with engaging in physical education (Kääpä et al., 2019).
Tudor, Sarkar, and Spray (2019) on their study on the impact of categorising physical education as a male subject on female participation argued that teenage girls have a lesser chance of developing interest in physical education, mainly due to the activities being classed as unfeminine. According to Tudor et al. (2019), young girls often reject physical education based on the perception that has been created that the majority of these activities are for males. In other words, the perception supports the engagement of boys at the expense of girls thus affecting how girls perceive their involvement in such activities. In this regard, Groffik et al. (2020) argued that changing the way activities are perceived would be a key step in establishing a positive framework, especially for the young girls in secondary schools. Secondary schools should create a gender-neutral environment in which both girls and boys would engage in physical activities without the fear that some of these activities may be gendered in one way or another.

Fear of Physical Activities
Some researchers have underlined fear of physical activities as a cause of low participation in such activities by female students. For instance, Beltrán-Carrillo, Devís-Devís, and Peiró-Velert (2018) argued that fear is a major reason why the majority of girls in secondary schools shy away from participating in physical education. Noteworthy, females are more sensitive to various aspects such as how they look based on their outward appearances. Kahan (2019) agreed with Beltrán-Carrillo et al. (2018) view maintaining that most girls in secondary schools do not participate in physical education as a result of fear of being judged by others.
Kahan (2019) added that most secondary school girls tend to fear being criticised or shamed by their inability to participate in various activities defined in the program. Notably, the aspect of fear among secondary school students is crucial considering that it is associated with a lack of confidence and self-esteem. Further studies show that self-esteem is a primary element that enables an individual to engage in various activities without being concerned of what others would think of them. Beltrán-Carrillo et al. (2018) in their study also noted that the majority of the students that tend to have fears regarding their abilities and appearance have issues concerning confidence and self-esteem issues. Concurrently, Ten Hoor et al. (2018) noted girls generally tend to have lower self-esteem when compared to boys, especially while at the teenage stage, which impacts their abilities to engage in physical activities.
Walseth (2015) holds a similar view arguing that, at this stage, girls often feel a sense of insecurity within themselves, which affects the way they interact with their peers or the kind of activities that they undertake. From Walseth (2015) perspective, the lack of self-esteem among girls is considered as one of the key factors that are likely to contribute to their non-participation in physical education in secondary schools. The main implication is that advancing motivation for girls to engage in physical education would require having to change their mind-set on the benefits associated with their engagement in physical activities. Walseth (2015) concluded that both teachers and parents ought to take up active roles in creating an environment where girls and boys appreciate the fact that engaging in physical education tends to have a wide array of health benefits.

Old Fashioned National Curriculum
Some researchers are concerned that the national curriculum uses old-fashioned strategies that force girls into engaging in physical education without providing information on the benefits of exercises. According to Evans (2017), the majority of girls in secondary schools tend to shy away from physical education because they lack adequate information concerning the benefits of physical exercises. The old-fashioned curriculum focuses on defining different aspects of physical education without focusing on the individual benefits and the impact that the program may have on the lives of individual students (Oh and Graber, 2019). The use of inappropriate approach plays a significant role in ensuring that girls in secondary schools do not engage in physical education as they view the program as a waste of time due to lack of a proper understanding of the actual benefits.

The Conflict between Feminism and Activity
A controversy between feminism and activity defined by various elements concerning social and cultural beliefs has also been cited as a cause of declining participation in physical education among women. Valley and Graber (2017) noted that some girls in secondary schools often believe in their femininity, which affects their engagement in physical education. Silva et al. (2018) argued in the same line that in society, in some communities, girls tend to be considered lesser beings and therefore should only engage in defined roles and responsibilities. Silva et al. (2018) further stated that the perceptions concerning the cultural beliefs impact the lives of students from an early age thereby resulting in a situation where girls grow up having the perception that certain things should be undertaken by the male population. In a situation where girls participate in physical education, they experience societal pressure, which results in intimidation and fear of rejection. Valley and Graber (2017) hold a similar view that the fear of social rejection makes the girls in secondary schools shy away from participating in physical education and ensures that their perceived femininity is maintained.
In society today, feminine ideals are instilled in girls while at a young age, some of whom are below the age of fifteen years, which impacts the way they view different aspects of their immediate world (Kondakov, Kopeikina, Balysheva, Usatov, and Skrug, 2015). Kondakov et al. (2015) also claimed that feminine ideals often go against the idea of girls engaging in activities that expect them to use their muscles in one way or another. Instead, these ideas push for girls to project themselves through their outer beauty that allows them to connect with those that they interact within the society. However, this is a negative ideal that only seems to dissuade girls from engaging in physical education irrespective of the fact that this education would have far-reaching benefits in their future lives (Kondakov et al., 2015). Society ought to avoid creating a negative mentality on how girls must perceive physical activities, which would help create a greater level of acceptance among teenage girls (Mitchell, Gray, and Inchley, 2015). Additionally, this would also help establish a better connection between girls and physical education at much more advanced levels of education.

Lack of Proper Facilities to Accommodate Girls in Physical Education
Some secondary schools lack facilities that would accommodate the needs of the teenage girls leading to them shying away from engaging in physical education. In their exploratory qualitative study, Okely et al. (2017) noted that the majority of girls in secondary schools tend to shy away from participating in activities associated with physical education because of lack of proper facilities for girls in secondary. Considering that the needs of boys and girls are different, Telford et al. (2016) in their longitudinal study underlined that girls in secondary schools must get the appropriate facilities that would allow them to maximise their abilities and to achieve the set goals and objectives that concern maintains a healthy lifestyle. Abildsnes et al. (2017) also argued that the majority of the secondary schools have not engaged in the implementation of measures and strategies that enable the students to develop different skills associated with physical education.
As emphasised by Jabeen et al. (2017), the provision of adequate resources and appropriate facilities acts as a motivating factor that enables secondary school girls to participate more in physical education. Walseth et al. (2017) agreed to Jabeen et al. (2017) arguing that considering that physical education involves engaging in activities associated with an active lifestyle, it is important to capitalise on motivation that enables girls in secondary schools to engage in physical activities willingly. Van Aart et al. (2017) underlined that the inability of girls’ secondary schools to provide appropriate facilities that suit the needs of the girls contributes to demotivation and failure to participate in physical education programs. Overcoming the reason for non-participation in the learning program may involve ensuring that the management of the school understands the different needs of boys and girls concerning physical education (Van Aart et al., 2017). Additionally, the provision of adequate and appropriate facilities for the girls in secondary schools may result in motivation that ultimately increases the level of participation in the physical education program.

Lack of Physical Challenge
Although girls often feel that physical education is important, most teachers often adopt approaches that are inclined towards play and fun and fail to capitalise on learning and development. Esteban-Cornejo et al. (2015) argued that while at the secondary school level, most teenage girls often feel the need to meet and overcome physical challenges that would help in creating a rewarding and confidence-building environment. The majority of cases where girls are engaged in physical activities often see these girls being sarcastic about their ability levels or some of the goals that they can achieve within a given period (Phillips and Silverman, 2015). However, these girls often find it hard to get the physical challenge that is likely to push them towards achieving their expected physical objectives. The most likely outcome is that most of the teachers fail to account for the needs and wants of the girls, instead of focusing on lessons that are only directed towards play and fun without advancing learning and overall development.
The lack of consideration of the girls as part of their engagement in physical education pushes them towards developing negative perceptions of their involvement in such lessons. Ultimately, this creates an environment where most of the girls in secondary schools often lack the motivation or push that would direct them towards engaging in physical education (Kerner et al., 2019). That shows a clear disconnect between girls and teachers on matters associated with physical education. Such disconnect arises from the fact that teachers often fail to consider what the students want or need when it comes to their engagement in physical education. Consequently, this creates a situation where girls often lag in physical activities not only at the secondary school level, but also at higher levels (Papla et al., 2019). Creating a compromising environment in which teachers would push students towards their limits may serve as one of the surest ways for teachers to increase the participation of girls in physical education.

Aims and Rationale for the Research.
Participation in physical activity is widely researched with most of the studies focused on the importance of physical activities on child development, health, and people’s beliefs and attitudes towards physical activities. Moreover, most of the studies on female engagement in physical education assess young women’s views on their experiences and barriers towards physical education mainly from psychological points of view. Remarkably, these studies help to examine the level of physical activities in the target population. However, the area of non-participation in physical education among secondary school girls has been understudied. As a result, the issue of gender parity in physical education remains in most secondary schools. Consequently, the UK might take a long time to realise the set physical activity benchmark for its population or will never attain it.
The current study will contribute to the study of female non-participation in physical education, specifically, secondary school girls by further exploring physical education teachers’ perspective on the causes of girls’ non-participation in physical education and how to solve the issue. Therefore, the findings will offer valuable information for the government, national curriculum planners, education policymakers, school administration, and physical educators on the causes of non-participation in physical education.

Research Questions
1. What are PE teachers’ views on the causes of girls’ non-participation in physical education?
2. What is the role of society in encouraging girls’ participation in physical education?
3. What does an enabling environment for PE participation look like?
 
Bibliography
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Aelterman, N., Vansteenkiste, M., Soenens, B., and Haerens, L. (2016). ‘A Dimensional and Person-Centred Perspective on Controlled Reasons for Non-Participation in Physical Education’. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, vol. 23, pp.142-154.
Bartholomew, J.B., Errisuriz, V.L. and Jowers, E.M. (2019).’ Physical Activity in Children and Adolescents. APA Handbook of Sport and Exercise Psychology’. American Psychological Association, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 185-199.
Bechter, B. E., Dimmock, J. A., Howard, J. L., Whipp, P. R., and Jackson, B. (2018). ‘Student Motivation in High School Physical Education: A Latent Profile Analysis Approach’. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, vol. 40, no. 4, pp. 206-216.
Beltrán-Carrillo, V. J., Devís-Devís, J., and Peiró-Velert, C. (2018). ‘The Influence of Body Discourses on Adolescents’(Non) Participation in Physical Activity’. Sport, Education, And Society, vol. 23, no. 3, pp.257-269.
Bhargava, D. (2017). ‘Barriers to Women Participation in Sports and Physical Activity in Southern Rajasthan’. Journal of Commerce and Trade, vol. 12, no. 2, pp.89-97.
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Evans, J. (2017). Equality, Education, and Physical Education. London: Routledge.
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Kääpä, M., Palomäki, S., Vähä-Ypyä, H., Vasankari, T., and Hirvensalo, M. (2019). The Role of Physical Education Homework to Adolescent Girls’ Physical Activity in Finland. Advances in Physical Education, vol. 9, no. 4, pp.1-20.
Kahan, D. (2019). ‘Critical Appraisal of Qualitative Studies of Muslim Females’ Perceptions of Physical Activity Barriers and Facilitators’. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 16, no. 24, pp.5040.
Kerner, C., Kirk, D., De Meester, A., and Haerens, L. (2019). ‘Why is Physical Education More Stimulating for Pupils Who are More Satisfied with Their Bodies?’ Health Education Journal, vol. 78, no. 3, pp.251-265.
Kondakov, V. L., Kopeikina, E. N., Balysheva, N. V., Usatov, A. N., and Skrug, D. A. (2015). ‘Causes of Declining Interest of Students to Employment Physical Education and Sports’. Physical Education of Students, vol. 19, no. 1, pp.17-21.
Macniven, R., Hearn, S., Grunseit, A., Richards, J., Nutbeam, D., and Bauman, A. (2017). ‘Correlates of Physical Activity among Australian Indigenous and Non-indigenous Adolescents’. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, vol. 41, no. 2, pp.187-192.
Mitchell, F., Gray, S., and Inchley, J. (2015). ‘This Choice Thing Really Works’ Changes in Experiences and Engagement of Adolescent Girls in Physical Education Classes, during a School-Based Physical Activity Programme’. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, vol 20, no. 6, pp.593-611.
Munk, M., and Agergaard, S. (2018). ‘Listening to Students’ Silences–A Case Study Examining Students’ Participation and Non-Participation in Physical Education’. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, vol. 23, no. 4, p.371-386.
Oh, J. and Graber, K.C. (2019). ‘Physical Education Teacher Education Leaders’ Perceptions of a National Curriculum in Physical Education’. Research quarterly for exercise and sport, vol. 90, no. 3, pp.362-376.
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Valley, J.A. and Graber, K.C. (2017). ‘Gender-biased communication in physical education’. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, vol. 36, no. 4, pp.498-509.
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Walseth, K. (2015). ‘Muslim Girls’ Experiences in Physical Education in Norway: What Role does Religiosity Play?’ Sport, Education, and Society, vol. 20, no.3, pp.304-322.
Walseth, K., Aartun, I., and Engelsrud, G. (2017). ‘Girls’ Bodily Activities in Physical Education how Current Fitness and Sport Discourses Influence Girls’ Identity Construction’. Sport, Education, and Society, vol. 22, no.4, pp.442-459.

School of Education and Lifelong Learning
Undergraduate Feedback Sheet for Literature Review

Module ED20320
Assignment No. / Dissertation / Exam Literature Review
Student
Session 2019/2020

Excellent
70%-100% Good
60%-69% Satisfactory
50%-59% Poor
40%-49% Very Poor
0%-39%
Presentation (0-8) Grammar, punctuation, structure of essay 4 6-8 5 4 3 0-3
Coverage (0-16) The question has been answered 8 12-16 10-11 8-9 6-7 0-5
Sources (0-28) A minimum of 3 referred to once each + one quote. Harvard system is used. 24 20-28 16-19 14-15 11-13 0-10
Knowledge and understanding (0-14) Developed through further reading 9 11-14 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4
Critical evaluation (0-14) Sources have been compared, contrasted and evaluated 8 11-14 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4
Evidence and coherent argument (0-20) A well-constructed argument based on evidence from sources 12 14-20 12-13 10-11 8-9 0-7
Total mark as percentage 65%

Comments
Presentation (0-8) Overall, the structure of the essay is satisfactory. I have noted that some sections could be merged (e.g. the section on gender stereotyping and on femininity had a lot of overlap; likewise the section on lack of motivation and facilities could be merged as there is a lot of overlap here). Some grammatical slips (e.g. feminism and femininity not the same thing!) Overall the literature review could be more concise, as there is a lot of repetition throughout (something which can be solved by merging sections).
Coverage (0-16) I think this study has a huge amount of potential, but I know that you are able to push yourself a bit more in terms of the depth of analysis here. For example, when you are discussing the facilities, you need to include specific examples of what you mean by facilities (what are inappropriate and appropriate facilities for girls?). I also think you need to find some statistics on
A) What are the numbers of girls participating in sports in school
B) What are the numbers of girls going on to study sports at University
In addition, I think you need to define physical education more clearly at the beginning of your study, bearing in mind that some girls might not attend sports class at school but might go to spinning class at the weekend, for example. What about personal trainers? Do they count as physical education?
I also think you should include more about the cultural aspect. You mention gender roles in ‘some societies’ but you need to be more specific here. I notice in your biblio you have an article about Muslim girls participation in PE in Norway. That is the kind of example you could bring in here.
Finally, what about recent campaigns e.g. This Girl Can; Nike making a Hijab for Muslim women to exercise in. It would be good to mention these too.
Sources (0-28) Excellent bibliography showing a great deal of independent research.
Knowledge and understanding (0-14) Knowledge and understanding is good but as noted above, you need to explore each theme in more depth.
Critical evaluation (0-14) Following the points that I have noted under ‘coverage’ will help you with your critical evaluation. You need to be thinking about whether the reasons cited in the literature for nonparticipation are the same for everyone. Bringing in the cultural element is key in this, as is elaborating with more detail each of your key examples. Overall though, you have compared and contrasted the sources, but I would note that if sources state the same thing, then you can just list them in the same bracket rather than repeat the argument. That will help to keep your review concise and critical.
Evidence and coherent argument (0-20) The argument needs some restructuring but there is a lot of supporting evidence here.
To improve your work you need to: – I have listed some key changes that you might choose to make under ‘coverage’. Overall, the essay requires more depth and more specificity.
– Avoid vague language like ‘most’ ‘all girls’ ‘all teachers’ – it is impossible to generalize across populations.
– I think you need to delve into literature on gender. Start with Robin Lakoff ‘ Language and women’s place’ (excellent book); Butler ‘Gender Trouble’ (quite complicated book, have a try and email me if you get stuck). There is also a body of literature on sports and power, try e.g. Walker (2013): State of play: the political ontology of sport
– Overall, this is a great start for the literature review, and as I noted earlier, I have great faith in this as a study. I hope you find the comments constructive.

Some thoughts on your research questions (please note this is informal feedback only, the RQs are not assessed):
– Question one is great
– Not sure what exactly you mean by question 2, but I imagine you are going down the lines of how society encourages girls to do PE (e.g. through campaigns like This Girl Can). I think you could be clearer in how you express this. Maybe ‘encouraging’ rather than ‘fostering?’
– The third question is interesting too, but might be hard to get data on. I would consider maybe a simpler version ‘what does an enabling environment for PE participation look like?’
YOUR NEXT STEP
Now that you have read your feedback and viewed your assignment, consider which aspects of the feedback should be included in ‘Part 2 – Academic Progress’ of your Graduate Attribute Portfolio. If needed, you could e-mail your tutor – ***@aber.ac.uk – with your questions about the feedback or seek further clarification.